The largest group of women in the 1995 analysis included almost 37,000 women randomized in 55 trials, all of which were designed to look at whether tamoxifen was an active agent in the…

The surgical management of breast cancer has undergone radical change in the last 40 years. While it used to be standard practice to perform mastectomies, new breast-conserving procedures have been developed…

The axillary surgery causes the bulk of postoperative discomfort for breast cancer patients, and minor complications are frequent. Seromas are frequently seen, especially if the drain is removed early. These can be managed…

The arm is draped free and rests on an arm board for most of the procedure.

During dissection of the apex of the axilla, the arm can be flexed and abducted to relax…

Preoperative mammography is essential prior to treatment of any patient with suspected malignancy. The mammogram may show the extent of the lesion, or additional lesions or microcalcification elsewhere in the breast that alter the operative…

Surgery plays a less important role in Stage III breast cancer. A large majority of patients with Stage III breast cancer will have axillary lymph node involvement, and a significant proportion…

Axillary dissection (AD) has been part of breast cancer surgery from the time of Halsted. The status of the axillary nodes remains the most powerful prognostic indicator in the treatment of invasive breast cancer. Debate…

Breast reconstruction is an integral part of the surgical treatment of breast cancer. Reconstructive options are part of the discussion with a patient if mastectomy is being considered. It is a central component of the…

Historically, DCIS comprised about 3% of breast cancers, and most cases were large palpable tumors. Recently, an increasing portion of patients present with impalpable DCIS. Up to one-third of breast cancers found on…

The treatment options for patients with early-stage (Stage I and II) invasive breast cancer today are breast-conservation therapy (BCT) with adjuvant radiation therapy and modified radical mastectomy (MRM) with or without breast…

Surgery is the most effective treatment option ever employed against breast cancer. Halsted’s radical mastectomy (RM), which dates from the turn of the century, revolutionized the local control of the disease and…

Breast imaging plays an integral role in breast cancer screening and diagnosis. Screening mammography is performed in an asymptomatic woman in order to detect clinically occult breast carcinoma. Diagnostic mammography is performed to evaluate a…

Breast imaging plays a critical role in breast screening and diagnosis.

Screening and diagnostic mammography allow the detection and evaluation of clinically occult breast cancer. The mammogram report should be worded n accordance…

Stereotactic biopsy uses specialized mammography equipment to calculate precisely the location of a lesion in three dimensions. Stereotactic biopsy can be performed with the patient prone on a dedicated table or with the patient sitting…

The goals of needle localization are to assist the surgeon in removing a nonpalpable breast mass that is suspicious or highly suggestive of malignancy and to minimize the amount of tissue that must be sacrificed…

The Breast Imaging Reporting and Data System (BI-RADS™) lexicon was developed by the American College of Radiology (ACR) in an effort to standardize terminology used…

Abnormalities found on mammographic screening may need further evaluation with additional mammographic views or other imaging modalities, such as ultrasound or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In some screening programs, the mammograms are reviewed by the…

As breast cancer increases in size, there is a higher frequency of axillary metastases and a higher mortality rate. Tumor size for infiltrating breast carcinomas has been classified as T1 (<2 cm), T2 (2-5 cm),…

Women who have breasts that appear dense on a mammogram are at increased risk for breast cancer. The reason for the increase in risk is unknown. Denser breasts may…

Breast cancer is one of the most prevalent malignancies among women in the western world. Well-designed scientific trials in the diagnosis and management of this disease remain paradigms for investigators in all fields.

Among the sites of systemic failure most prevalent in patients with breast cancer, brain and bone metastases are very adequately treated with brief courses of radiation. In certain circumstances, surgical excision of a…

Among patients who experience failure within the treated breast after breast-conservation therapy, mastectomy is the standard of care. When there has been a considerable disease-free interval between the treatment of the primary tumor…